The results of monitoring early career researchers

B1 Basic information

Official statistics and other data sources provide insight into the number of early career researchers and identify the potential for early career researchers in Germany. Table 2 presents the figures for the different groups and career stages. The column entitled “Data sources/notes” refers to the tables and figures in the full version of the National Report on Early Career Researchers 2025.

There is a notable decline in the proportion of women progressing up the qualification and career ladder in academia. This phenomenon is referred to as the “leaky pipeline”. The leaky pipeline still exists (Fig. 3). Compared to the National Report 2021, however, it appears that the proportion of women has increased at all levels, especially in first-time W2 appointments (from 34% to 46%). Clear gender disparities are now found only among habilitations and first-time W3 appointments. Nonetheless, the proportion of women in first-time W3 appointments rose significantly between 2018 and 2022 (from 27% to 36%).

The number of habilitations has decreased continuously over time (Fig. 4). Medicine/ health sciences are the exception, with relatively consistent numbers of habilitations since 2010.

B2 Working and employment conditions

96% of early career researchers are employed on temporary contracts: 99.7% of doctoral candidates (R1) and 90% of doctorate holders among academic and artistic staff working in universities as their main occupation (under 35 and under 40, excluding professors) are on fixed-term contracts. The share of these contracts decreases in later career stages (Table 3). Differences between groups can be observed in the R3 phase: 62% of doctorate holders aged 40 to 45 are employed on temporary contracts, along with 72% of junior research group leaders and 44% of those under 45 years of age with habilitations.

Fewer academics and researchers under the age of 45 are on fixed-term contracts at NURI than at universities. In 2022, this figure was 80%. Meanwhile, the share of fixed-term contracts for personnel under 35 years without a doctorate is 88%, compared to 76% among doctorate holders under 40 and 45% among doctorate holders aged 40 to 45.

The average contractual term is now longer than in the National Report 2021: Doctoral students indicated that they had an average term of around 29.6 months in 2019, well above that in 2016 (22.1 months). Furthermore, the average contractual term for postdocs has increased from 27.5 months (2016) to 34.3 months (2019).

Most doctoral candidates are employed by a university or research facility: According to Nacaps, the majority of doctoral students finance their studies by working at a university or research facility, with 50% citing this employment as their main source of income.

45% of early career researchers at universities are employed on a part-time basis: 59% of doctoral students under the age of 35 (R1) work part-time, along with 25% of doctorate holders under 40 years (R2) and 37% of doctorate holders aged 40 to 45 (R3; not early career researchers)

Figure 5 shows the share of early career researchers (R1 and R2) in part-time employment at universities by subject group. Across all subject groups, women are more likely to be on part-time contracts than men. The gender disparity is particularly striking in medicine/health sciences, where the share of women in part-time employment (R1 and R2) is 18 percentage points higher than that of men (38% vs. 20%).

Fewer academics and researchers under 45 are on part-time contracts at NURI than at universities. This figure was 33% in 2022. The share of part-time contracts for staff under 35 years without a doctorate (R1) is 40%, as opposed to 18% among doctorate holders under the age of 40 (R2) and 26% among doctorate holders between 40 and 45 years (R3).

B3 The transition to doctoral studies and qualification conditions for doctoral candidates

Doctoral rates decreased over time and differ according to subject groups: Overall, the rate of doctorates awarded between 2014 and 2022 fell from 22% to 16% (Table 4). There is considerable variation between the subjects regarding the rate of doctorates awarded, ranging from 4.1% in art and art history to 56% in medicine/health sciences.

The Nacaps surveys found an increase in the proportion of doctoral students with a migration background, rising from 23% in 2019 to 28% in 2023. Regarding the parental educational background, as in 2019, 16% of doctoral candidates have parents who also hold a doctorate. The share of doctoral students with parents holding a university degree (rather than a doctorate) rose from 44% to 47% between 2019 and 2023. The share of those with parents who did not graduate from university dropped from 39% to 37%.

For the first time, the National Report on Early Career Researchers 2025 calculates the time to doctorate based on Nacaps data. The starting date of their doctoral studies is the date on which respondents began working on their dissertation. The end point is the completion of their doctorate from the respondents’ perspective. According to Nacaps, the average time to doctorate was 5.1 years in 2023. The duration of doctoral studies varies only slightly between men and women. The average time to doctorate varies by subject, from 4.4 years in agricultural, forestry and food sciences, veterinary medicine to 6.3 years in art and art history (Fig. 6).

Compared to the National Report 2021, which estimated times to doctorate based on the average age of candidates when embarking on their studies and on receiving their doctorate, the average time to doctorate in the subject groups remains similar. Remarkably, the new measuring method has extended the time to doctorate in the subject group of medicine/health sciences, bringing it in line with the average duration.

B4 Career paths pursued by doctorate holders

Unemployment among doctorate holders barely fluctuates between 1% and 2% from the third to the seventh year after graduation (Fig. 7). Doctorate holders can thus be considered fully employed.

Seven years after receiving their doctorate, a mere 24% of doctorate holders remain in the science system. To a large extent (48%), doctorate holders work in the private sector, with 24% in hospitals and medical practices and 4% in other public institutions.

Two years before completing their doctorate, some 65% of doctorate holders are employed at universities or NURI. However, this percentage declines significantly in the years fol- lowing their doctorate. A particularly sharp decline can be observed between the year in which the doctorate was awarded and the following year. During this period, the share of doctorate holders employed at universities and NURI drops from 48% to 33%.

There is a marked gender gap in the target sectors for doctorate holders who have left universities and NURI. Seven years after graduating, 57% of male doctorate holders work in the private sector, compared to just 36% of female doctorate holders.

On average, doctorate holders earn higher salaries than non- doctorate holders. Five years after graduation, the gross annual income of doctorate holders in the 2013 cohort is almost 20,000 euros higher than that of non- doctoral graduates (Fig. 8. This difference has jumped significantly compared to the 2009 cohort.

Doctorate holders are more likely to take up senior positions than non-doctoral university graduates. According to the DZHW Graduate Panel (cohort 2009), 40% of doctorate holders are in management roles ten years after receiving their doctorate, compared to just 25% of bachelor’s and master’s graduates.

Doctorate holders are more likely than non-doctoral university graduates to engage in professional activities that are commensurate with their qualifications. Five years after graduation, a remarkable 91% of doctorate holders in the DZHW Graduate Panel (co- hort 2013) are in roles that align with their qualifications, whereas among bachelor’s and master’s graduates, the share is just 62% and 74% respectively.

The importance of habilitation as the final pre- qualification before the first appointment to a tenured professorship is declining. In 2016, 20% of newly appointed professors were habilitated as their final pre-qualification, versus just 15% in 2022

The chances of being appointed to a professorship seem to be gradually improving compared to previous years. During the period under review, the number of applications to universities and other institutions of equal status increased by 21% (from 44,647 in 2002 to 54,243 in 2022). At the same time, the number of appointments surged by 75% (from 1,455 in 2002 to 2,550 in 2022; Table 5). On average, this means that one in 21 applicants was successful.

The proportion of women submitting applications, achieving shortlist places and securing professorial appointments has jumped substantially over time: In 2022, women accounted for 31% of applications, 42% of shortlist places and 43% of appointments to professorships at universities and equivalent institutions. The share of women in applications, shortlist places and appointments has risen over time: the corresponding figures for 2002 were 15% of applications, 17% of shortlist places and 18% of appointments.

B5 Fixed-term contracts in academic employment

The share of fixed-term contracts among full-time academic staff decreases steadily with age: Among academic staff (excluding professors) working in universities as their main occupation, older employees are far less likely to be on temporary contracts than their younger colleagues. The share of fixed-term contracts drops in particularly large increments between the age groups of 35 to 39 years (83%), 40 to 44 (62%), and those aged 45 to 49 (42%) (Table 6). Thus, temporary employment is not solely a “mass phenomenon” among early career researchers at universities as large percentages of older employees continue to be employed on a fixed-term basis as well. Nevertheless, shares of 80% or more of fixed-term contracts are practically only found among those under the age of 40.

Across all age groups, the share of fixed- term contracts at NURI is lower than at universities: As at universities, the proportion of temporary employment decreases steadily with age. For example, just 24% of 45 to 49 year olds are employed on a temporary basis.

Fixed-term contracts and career choices of doctorate holders: When changing employers within the academic sector, new open-ended employment contracts are the exception (7.3%, Fig. 9). However, moving from academia to other areas of the public sector also often entails another fixed-term contract, with 68% of new employment contracts being temporary. By contrast, a move to the private sector often means that the new position is permanent: the share of unlimited employment contracts in these cases is invariably over 70%. It should be noted that, due to the unique nature of academic employment, extended options for temporary employment at universities and NURI are legally permissible under the WissZeitVG (German Law on Fixed-Term Employment Contracts in the Science and Research Sector) instead of the TzBfG (Part-Time and Limited Term Employment Act).

Differences between the sexes and subject groups after changing sectors: When women move from academia to the private sector, 63% of their new employment contracts are open-ended, while the figure for men is 17 percentage points higher (80%; Fig. 9). When transferring from universities/NURI to the private sector, just 47% of new employment contracts in the arts and humanities are permanent; conversely, the share of permanent contracts in other subject groups range from 67% in medicine/health sciences to 86% in engineering (Fig. 10)

Likelihood of leaving academia depends on fixed- term employment status: According to the DZHW Doctorate Holders Panel (cohort 2014), 51% of doctorate holders whose last employment contract was temporary have left academia, compared to just 18% of those with open- ended contracts (Fig. 11). There is thus a clear correlation between permanent employment and the retention of doctorate holders in academia (and vice versa). This descriptive finding can be supported by a regression analysis: if the fixed-term employment status is included with other characteristics in a multivariate analysis, where leaving academia is considered a dependent variable, temporary employees are 30 percentage points more likely to move away from academia than permanent employees.

Calculating fluctuation rates for doctorate holders at universities: A primary data survey was used to determine the fluctuation rates for doctorate holders at universities. If all doctorate holders are viewed as a whole, regardless of their temporary employment status and type of funding, the fluctuation rate is 25%. Of this, 18% have left their institute, while 7% have had their employment contract amended by their own institute. Findings also demonstrate that doctorate holders with fixed-term contracts have a significantly higher fluctuation rate of 35%, compared to doctorate holders in permanent employment. Nonetheless, the fluctuation rate is still 8% for doctorate holders with open-ended contracts.

B6 The compatibility of family life and an academic career

Share of parents among academics and researchers: The DZHW Scientists Survey revealed that, in 2023, 18% of female and 16% of male doctoral students are parents (17% overall; Fig. 12). The share of parents among doctorate holders stands at 54% (52% for women, 56% for men). Among professors, significant gender differences persist: 59% of women and 76% of men have at least one child.

Early career researchers tend to start a family relatively late. According to the micro- census, in 2022, just 6.5% of those under 35 years of age in fixed- term employment at universities are already parents, compared to 20% of university graduates under 35 years of age in the private sector. However, there are no longer any major disparities in the proportion of parents between doctorate holders under the age of 40 within and outside academia: 43% of doctorate holders at universities and 47% of doctorate holders in the private sector are parents.

Nacaps identified barriers to parenthood among early career researchers: Respondents cited the lack of work-life balance and uncertain career prospects as the main reasons for postponing their desire to have children, at least while studying for a doctorate. Compared to 2019, the constraints they feel in terms of personal development and fulfilment as an obstacle to starting a family have increased, whereas concerns about job insecurity have declined.

Early career researchers’ satisfaction with their work- life balance: In 2023, Nacaps found that parents pursuing a doctorate were less satisfied with their work-life balance than their colleagues without children. Compared to fathers, and childless women and men, mothers showed the lowest satisfaction scores. Moreover, women cite difficulties in juggling their doctoral studies and family life as the main reason for considering discontinuing their doctorate.

B7 Internationality

The share of non-German academic staff at universities and NURI has increased over time: The proportion of international academic staff at universities rose from 11% in 2015 to 15% in 2022. By contrast, the share of international academic staff at the four major non-university research facilities jumped from 20% to 30% between 2015 and 2022.

In a comparison of non-EU countries, Indian and Chinese researchers comprise the largest groups of international academic staff in Germany. Between 2018 and 2022, the numbers of both nationalities rose significantly once again (by 71% for India and by 38% for China; Fig. 13). A similar increase (albeit on a smaller scale) can be observed for Iran and Turkey.

Most young academics have earned their doctorate before they spend at least three months abroad: Over the past ten years, 33% of doctorate holders from Germany have spent at least three months abroad for the purposes of research. This suggests that most academics and researchers from Germany only spend longer periods abroad once they have completed their doctoral studies; such visits are relatively seldom during the doctoral phase.

B8 The pandemic

Measures to contain the pandemic also affected early career researchers: With reference to a literature review, the negative effects of the pandemic that were discussed throughout society, such as expanded working hours or a declining work-life balance due to mobile working, were also observed for early career researchers. At the same time, these measures also had positive effects, such as greater flexibility, more focus on personal research and increased time spent at home with the family.

Compatibility problems during the pandemic: Satisfaction is lowest among early career researchers with children and even lower for mothers than fathers (in 2023, 57% and 64% respectively scored relatively satisfied to very satisfied with their work-life balance). When asked specifically about the pandemic, 44% of early career researchers with children reported that the pandemic had made juggling the demands of family and work more difficult. Moreover, mothers studying for their doctorate appear to have experienced more disruptions in their publishing activities during the pandemic than other groups.

The pandemic appears to have had a greater impact on the productivity of doctoral students than doctorate holders. According to the Scientists Survey 2023, doctoral students in almost all subject groups reported a stronger negative effect on their productivity during the pandemic than doctorate holders, especially in the life sciences and natural sciences.

The Nacaps study reveals growing concerns about pursuing a career in the science system. In 2019, 30% of early career researchers cited their preference for a scientific career, but this dropped to just 18% in 2023. Although these findings emerged at the same time as the pandemic, they cannot be directly attributed to it.