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Key Findings

University spending
Proportion of Women
Job Market Prospects
Fixed-Term Employment
Fluctuation
Tenure-Track-Professors

The National Reports 2025 offers in-depth insights into the situation of early career researchers. Six key findings are presented below.

The key findings pertain to public university funding, the proportion of women at various qualification and career stages, job market prospects for doctorate holders, the prevalence of fixed-term employment contracts and the establishment of tenure track professorships in Germany.

University funding is increasing

Core funding for public universities comes almost entirely from state budgets. This funding serves as an important foundation for the qualification and support of early career researchers. Between 2005 and 2022, these funds increased nominally from 19 billion euros to 35 billion euros.

Further details on research funding can be found in Chapter A2.

Public expenditure on the higher education sector over time by governmental body (in billions of euros)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Mrd. Euro 2005 2010 2015 1 2020 1 2021 1 2022 1 1,8 17 3,2 19 5,0 24 4,7 29 4,7 29 4,9 31 Bund Länder
Governmental body2005201020151202012021120221
Federal government1,83,25,04,74,74,9
Federal states171924292931

1 Provisional data. The data for these reporting years of the Report on Educational Finance is based on budgetary statistics and not on annual accounting results of government budgets and is therefore considered provisional.
Source: Federal Statistical Office (various), Report on Educational Finance, Wiesbaden; own representation

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Despite leaky pipeline, proportion of women increasing

The more advanced the qualification and career level, the lower the proportion of women working in academia. However, since 2018, the share of women has grown at all levels, particularly in initial W2 appointments. Gender disparities now only persist in habilitations and initial W3 appointments, though the latter have seen a significant increase since 2018.

Additional data on (women’s representation in) various career stages can be found in Chapter B1.

Proportion of female researchers and their potential in 2018 und 2022, by career phase (in %)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 % 47 49 47 48 45 46 32 37 43 49 34 46 27 36 W2-Erst- Berufungen2 Habilitationen Juniorprofessorinnen- und Juniorprofessoren- (W1)-Erstberufungen2 Promotionen Promovierende 2023 Hochschulabsolventinnen und Hochschulabsolventen unter 35 Jahren1 W3-Erst- Berufungen 2022 2018
20182022
University graduates under 3514749
Doctoral students (2023)4748
Doctorates4546
Habilitations3237
First-time
appointments
of junior
professors (W1)2		4349
First-time W2 appointments23446
First-time W3 appointments2736

1 University degree (excluding teacher’s degree): German “Magister” degree, multi-subject master’s, licentiate, state examination, diploma (U), interpreter (U), translator (U), master’s at universities (compulsory final examination); arts degree: diploma (art academy), master’s at art academies (final examination required); university of applied science degree: diploma (UAS), interpreter (UAS), translator (UAS), master’s at universities of applied sciences (final examination required).
2 Including tenure track at universities, colleges of theology and education. Here not including colleges of art and music. First-time W2 appointments, both fixed-term and permanent.
Source: For university degrees: Federal Statistical Office, GENESIS-Online, Examinations at universities, table: 21321-0004; for doctoral students: Federal Statistical Office (2024), Statistical Report – Doctoral student statistics, reporting year 2023, table: 21352-08, Wiesbaden; for doctorate holders: Federal Statistical Office (2023), Statistical Report – Examination statistics, graduation year 2022, table: 21321-02, Wiesbaden; for habilitations: Federal Statistical Office, GENESIS- Online, habilitation statistics, table: 21351-0001; for junior professors, W2 and W3 professors: Federal Statistical Office (2023), Staff at universities, special evaluation, Wiesbaden; own representation. Data for 2018 was taken from the National Report 2021 (p. 107).

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Job market prospects remain strong

Fig. Employment Trends 1: The unemployment rate among doctorate holders remains consistently between 1 and 2% from the third to the seventh year after earning their doctorate. Therefore, it can be said that most doctorate holders are employed.

Fig. Employment Trends 2: On average, doctorate holders earn a higher income than those without a doctorate. Doctorate holders who completed their degree in 2013 earned, on average, nearly €20,000 more in gross annual income five years after graduation compared to non-doctorate university graduates.

Further information on the career trajectories of doctorate holders can be found in Chapter B4.

Graduates’ average gross annual income including allowances, five and ten years after graduating, by highest degree achieved (in euros)

0 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 50.000 60.000 70.000 80.000 90.000 Euro 2009 2013 Bachelor 2009 (+10 J.): 55.750 55.750 Bachelor 2009 (+5 J.): 44.650 44.650 Master 2009 (+10 J.): 65.650 64.650 Master 2009 (+5 J.): 48.150 48.150 Promotion 2009 (+10 J.): 74.700 74.700 Promotion 2009 (+5 J.): 56.250 56.250 Bachelor 2013 (+5 J.): 50.500 50.500 Master 2013 (+5 J.): 54.500 54.500 Promotion 2013 (+5 J.): 71.500 71.500 Alle Abschlüsse 2009 (+5 J.): 49.200 49.200 Alle Abschlüsse 2013 (+5 J.): 55.050 55.050 Alle Abschlüsse 2009 (+10 J.): 66.500 66.500 Bachelor (+ 5 J.) Bachelor (+ 10 J.) Master (+ 10 J.) Master (+ 5 J.) Promotion (+ 5J.) Promotion (+ 10 J.) Insgesamt (+ 10 J.) Insgesamt (+ 5 J.)
Highest degree achieved2009 (+5 years.)2009 (+10 years)2013 (+5 years)
Bachelor’s44.65055.75050.500
(Standard deviation)(18.100)(24.500)(36.150)
Master’s48.15064.65054.500
(Standard deviation)(19.100)(29.100)(27.600)
Doctorate56.25074.70071.500
(Standard deviation)(22.050)(30.050)(39.300)
Total49.20066.50055.050
(Standard deviation)(19.800)(29.500)(30.800)

Source: Accompanying study “Career decisions and career paths of doctorate holders – with special consideration of fixed-term contracts”, DZHW Graduate Panel

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Employment status of doctorate holders (cohort 2014) as of June 30 each year (in %)

0 20 40 60 80 100 % Jahre vorher Promotion Jahre nachher Vollzeitbeschäftigung Teilzeitbeschäftigung Geringfügige Beschäftigung Arbeitslosigkeit Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 2 Jahre vorher: 49 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 1 Jahr vorher: 44 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – Promotion: 28 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 1 Jahr nachher: 16 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 2 Jahre nachher: 15 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 3 Jahre nachher: 16 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 4 Jahre nachher: 17 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 5 Jahre nachher: 19 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 6 Jahre nachher: 21 Teilzeitbeschäftigung – 7 Jahre nachher: 23 23 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 2 Jahre vorher: 42 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 1 Jahr vorher: 47 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – Promotion: 61 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 1 Jahr nachher: 77 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 2 Jahre nachher: 80 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 3 Jahre nachher: 81 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 4 Jahre nachher: 80 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 5 Jahre nachher: 78 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 6 Jahre nachher: 76 Vollzeitbeschäftigung – 7 Jahre nachher: 74 74 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 2 Jahre vorher: 7 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 1 Jahr vorher: 5 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – Promotion: 3 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 1 Jahr nachher: 1 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 2 Jahre nachher: 1 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 3 Jahre nachher: 1 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 4 Jahre nachher: 1 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 5 Jahre nachher: 1 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 6 Jahre nachher: 1 Geringfügige Beschäftigung – 7 Jahre nachher: 1 1 Arbeitslosigkeit – 2 Jahre vorher: 1 Arbeitslosigkeit – 1 Jahr vorher: 3 Arbeitslosigkeit – Promotion: 7 Arbeitslosigkeit – 1 Jahr nachher: 5 Arbeitslosigkeit – 2 Jahre nachher: 3 Arbeitslosigkeit – 3 Jahre nachher: 2 Arbeitslosigkeit – 4 Jahre nachher: 2 Arbeitslosigkeit – 5 Jahre nachher: 2 Arbeitslosigkeit – 6 Jahre nachher: 2 Arbeitslosigkeit – 7 Jahre nachher: 1 1 -2 -1 2014 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-2-120141234567
Full-time employment42476177808180787674
Part-time employment49442816151617192123
Marginal employment7531111111
Unemployment1375322221
Other1111111110

Source: Accompanying study “ Career decisions and career paths of doctorate holders – with special consideration of fixed-term contracts”, data from the IAB-INCHER project of earned doctorates (IIPED)

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Majority of fixed-term contracts in academia

Fig. Sector Change 1: Less than 10% of new employment contracts in the academic sector are permanent. In contrast, over 70% of new contracts in the private sector are permanent, although there are gender disparities.

Fig. Sector Change 2: There are also notable differences between disciplines. For example, in the humanities and arts, only 47% of new employment contracts are permanent when transitioning from academia to the private sector, compared to 86% in engineering.

Further details on the importance of fixed-term contracts can be found in Chapter B5.

New, open-ended employment contracts awarded to doctorate holders (cohorts 2012 to 2016), zero to two years after obtaining a doctorate, as of June 30 each year, by sex and sector change (in %)

0 10 Privatwirtschaft –Privatwirtschaft Arbeitslosigkeit –Privatwirtschaft Arbeitslosigkeit –Hochschulen/AUFE Hochschulen/AUFE-Privatwirtschaft Hochschulen/AUFE-sonst. öffentl. Dienst Hochschulen/AUFE-Hochschulen/AUFE 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Männlich Weiblich Insgesamt Weiblich – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 66 66 Männlich – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 76 76 Insgesamt – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 72 72 Weiblich – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 63 63 Männlich – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 81 81 Insgesamt – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 74 74 Weiblich – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 8,7 8,7 Männlich – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 9,7 9,7 Insgesamt – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 9,2 9,2 Weiblich – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 63 63 Männlich – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 80 80 Insgesamt – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 74 74 Weiblich – Hochschulen/AUFE – sonst. öffentl. Dienst: 27 27 Männlich – Hochschulen/AUFE – sonst. öffentl. Dienst: 35 35 Insgesamt – Hochschulen/AUFE – sonst. öffentl. Dienst: 32 32 Weiblich – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 6,0 6,0 Männlich – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 8,1 8,1 Insgesamt – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 7,3 7,3
Universities/NURI –
Universities/NURI		Universities/NURI –
other public sector		Universities/NURI –
Private sector		Arbeitslosigkeit –
Universities/NURI		Arbeistlosigkeit –
Private sector		Private sector –
Private sector
Total7,332749,27472
Male8,135809,78176
Female6,027638,76366

Source: Accompanying study “Career decisions and career paths of doctorate holders – with special consideration of fixed-term contracts”, data from the IAB-INCHER project of earned doctorates (IIPED); own representation

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New, open-ended employment contracts awarded to doctorate holders (cohorts 2012 to 2016), zero to two years after obtaining a doctorate, as of June 30 each year, by subject group and sector change (in %)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Privatwirtschaft –Privatwirtschaft Arbeitslosigkeit –Privatwirtschaft Arbeitslosigkeit –Hochschulen/AUFE Hochschulen/AUFE-Privatwirtschaft Hochschulen/AUFE-Hochschulen/AUFE Geisteswissenschaften, Kunst Rechts-, Wirtschafts,- und Sozialwissenschaften Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften Humanmedizin/Gesundheitswissenschaften Ingenieurwissenschaften Ingenieurwissenschaften – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 81 81 Humanmedizin/Gesundheitswissenschaften – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 66 66 Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 73 73 Rechts-, Wirtschafts,- und Sozialwissenschaften – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 74 74 Geisteswissenschaften, Kunst – Privatwirtschaft – Privatwirtschaft: 56 56 Ingenieurwissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 88 88 Humanmedizin/Gesundheitswissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 63 63 Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 73 73 Rechts-, Wirtschafts,- und Sozialwissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 74 74 Geisteswissenschaften, Kunst – Arbeitslosigkeit – Privatwirtschaft: 42 42 Ingenieurwissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 21 21 Humanmedizin/Gesundheitswissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 9,3 9,3 Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 6,4 6,4 Rechts-, Wirtschafts,- und Sozialwissenschaften – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 7,3 7,3 Geisteswissenschaften, Kunst – Arbeitslosigkeit – Hochschulen/AUFE: 6,1 6,1 Ingenieurwissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 86 86 Humanmedizin/Gesundheitswissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 67 67 Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 74 74 Rechts-, Wirtschafts,- und Sozialwissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 69 69 Geisteswissenschaften, Kunst – Hochschulen/AUFE – Privatwirtschaft: 47 47 Ingenieurwissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 12 12 Humanmedizin/Gesundheitswissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 10 10 Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 4,6 4,6 Rechts-, Wirtschafts,- und Sozialwissenschaften – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 6,2 6,2 Geisteswissenschaften, Kunst – Hochschulen/AUFE – Hochschulen/AUFE: 4,4 4,4
Universities/NURI –
Universities/NURI		Universities/NURI –
Private sector		Arbeitslosigkeit –
Universities/NURI		Arbeistlosigkeit –
Private sector		Private sector –
Private sector
Arts and humanities4,4476,14256
Law, economics and social sciences6,2697,37474
Mathematics, natural sciences4,6746,47373
Medicine/health sciences10679,36366
Engineering1286218881

Source: Accompanying study “Career decisions and career paths of doctorate holders – with special consideration of fixed-term contracts”, data from the IAB-INCHER project of earned doctorates (IIPED); own representation

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Contract status impacts retention in academia

Contract status has a direct impact on the likelihood of doctorate holders leaving academia. Multivariate analyses reveal that individuals on fixed-term contracts are 30 percentage points more likely to leave academia compared to those on permanent contracts. However, turnover is also evident among those with permanent contracts.

Further details on the impact of fixed-term contracts and turnover can be found in Chapter B5.

Share of doctorate holders (cohort 2014) leaving academia between one and seven years after obtaining a doctorate, by fixed-term employment status (in %)

0 20 40 60 80 100 % Befristet Unbefristet Verbleib in der Wissenschaft – Unbefristet: 82 82 Verlassen der Wissenschaft – Unbefristet: 18 18 Verbleib in der Wissenschaft – Befristet: 49 49 Verlassen der Wissenschaft – Befristet: 51 51 Verbleib in der Wissenschaft Verlassen der Wissenschaft
Retention in academiaLeaving academia
Permanent8218
Fixed-term4951

Source: Accompanying study “Career decisions and career paths of doctorate holders – with special consideration of fixed-term contracts”, data from the DZHW Doctorate Panel

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Number of tenure track professors doubled between 2018 and 2022

In 2022, Germany had 1,336 tenure-track professorships. Compared to other qualification and career paths leading to professorships, tenure-track positions have grown significantly and seem to be partially replacing junior research group leader roles and non-tenure-track junior professorships.

Further details on the establishment of tenure-track professorships can be found in Section C.

Career paths to professorships at universities and equivalent institutions from 2018 to 2022, by type of career path (in %)

0 50 100 150 200 250 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 % Professuren mit IT JP ohne TT NWGL Habilitationen Laufende Habilitationen laufende Habilitationen – 2018: 100 laufende Habilitationen – 2019: 105 laufende Habilitationen – 2020: 110 laufende Habilitationen – 2021: 109 laufende Habilitationen – 2022: 108 108 Habilitationen – 2018: 100 Habilitationen – 2019: 99 Habilitationen – 2020: 100 Habilitationen – 2021: 106 Habilitationen – 2022: 100 100 NWGL – 2018: 100 NWGL – 2019: 88 NWGL – 2020: 75 NWGL – 2021: 68 NWGL – 2022: 73 73 JP ohne TT – 2018: 100 JP ohne TT – 2019: 92 JP ohne TT – 2020: 86 JP ohne TT – 2021: 82 JP ohne TT – 2022: 76 76 Professuren mit IT – 2018: 100 Professuren mit IT – 2019: 111 Professuren mit IT – 2020: 141 Professuren mit IT – 2021: 168 Professuren mit IT – 2022: 201 201
20182019202020212022
Tenure track professorhips (W1 and W2)100111141168201
Non-tenure track, junior professorships (W1)10092868276
Junior research group leaders10088756873
Habilitations10099100106100
Ongoing habilitations100105110109108

Source: Special evaluation of the Federal Statistical Office, calculation for the accompanying study “Establishing the tenure-track professorship career path in the German science system”; own representation

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